Free Essays on Political Science In The Arab-Israeli Conflict

Peace and Conflict Studies: Core Unit Conflict resolution is one of the most powerful ways of making positive contribution to the field of international relations. Conflict, be it behavioural or based on attitude, is currently creating grave world inequalities and furthering deep rooted problems. Conflict resolution sets out to provide lasting just solutions to these often seemingly endless problems and lay the ground for a lasting peace. In the twenty first century one longstanding international dispute that continues is the known as the Middle East Conflict or the Arab-Israeli Conflict. This essentially is conflict over land between the Jewish and Arab peoples and has been in crises for nearly a hundred years, yet has roots that go back to ancient civilisations. The establishment of the Israeli state in 1948 has created a serge of violence in the Middle East and displaced the Palestinian people. Both sides lay claim to this land. Attempts at solving this conflict have been made with little success. This paper therefore will argue that new attempts to solve the Arab-Israeli conflict need to be made through a conflict resolution practice known as conflict transformation. This is practiced by Burton, Fisher and Ury and Galtung amongst others. Essentially it involves restructuring ways of looking at conflict in order to transform conflict into a positive force. A brief summary of the Arab-Israeli conflict that attempts to be neutral shall first be given to show some of the complexities of this conflict. This will then be countered with conflict transformation theories that will show how they can be used to create a just peace to this long conflict. Owing to the confines of this paper an emphasis will be on the Palestinians on the Arab side. The Arab-Israeli conflict dates back to ancient times when in 1250BC the Israelites began to conquer and settle the land of Cannan. In 70AD under Roman occupation the Jews were expelled from P... Free Essays on Political Science In The Arab-Israeli Conflict Free Essays on Political Science In The Arab-Israeli Conflict Peace and Conflict Studies: Core Unit Conflict resolution is one of the most powerful ways of making positive contribution to the field of international relations. Conflict, be it behavioural or based on attitude, is currently creating grave world inequalities and furthering deep rooted problems. Conflict resolution sets out to provide lasting just solutions to these often seemingly endless problems and lay the ground for a lasting peace. In the twenty first century one longstanding international dispute that continues is the known as the Middle East Conflict or the Arab-Israeli Conflict. This essentially is conflict over land between the Jewish and Arab peoples and has been in crises for nearly a hundred years, yet has roots that go back to ancient civilisations. The establishment of the Israeli state in 1948 has created a serge of violence in the Middle East and displaced the Palestinian people. Both sides lay claim to this land. Attempts at solving this conflict have been made with little success. This paper therefore will argue that new attempts to solve the Arab-Israeli conflict need to be made through a conflict resolution practice known as conflict transformation. This is practiced by Burton, Fisher and Ury and Galtung amongst others. Essentially it involves restructuring ways of looking at conflict in order to transform conflict into a positive force. A brief summary of the Arab-Israeli conflict that attempts to be neutral shall first be given to show some of the complexities of this conflict. This will then be countered with conflict transformation theories that will show how they can be used to create a just peace to this long conflict. Owing to the confines of this paper an emphasis will be on the Palestinians on the Arab side. The Arab-Israeli conflict dates back to ancient times when in 1250BC the Israelites began to conquer and settle the land of Cannan. In 70AD under Roman occupation the Jews were expelled from P...

How to Grow Baking Soda Crystals

How to Grow Baking Soda Crystals Baking soda or sodium bicarbonate crystals tend to be small and white. Sometimes they can look a little like frost or icing when grown on a string. Heres how you grow baking soda crystals yourself: Materials Baking sodaWaterClean jar or glassStringWeight (e.g., paperclip)Pencil or butter knife (to hold the string over the glass) Prepare the Container You want to hang the string in the glass or jar so that it doesnt touch the sides or bottom of the container. Tie the string to the pencil or knife, weight it so it will hang straight, and adjust the length of the string so that it doesnt touch the bottom of the container. Prepare the Solution Mix as much baking soda as you can into just-boiled water. For 1 cup of water, this is approximately 7 teaspoons of baking soda. Add the baking soda a little at a time, stirring between additions, because carbon dioxide gas will be evolved, causing the solution to bubble initially. Alternatively, heat baking soda and cool water until it is near-boiling. Allow the solution to sit undisturbed for a few moments to allow any undissolved baking soda to sink to the bottom of the cup. Grow Baking Soda Crystals Pour the baking soda solution into the container. Avoid getting undissolved baking soda in the glass.You may wish to cover the container with a coffee filter or paper towel to keep the solution clean while permitting evaporation.Allow the crystals to grow as long as you like. If you start to see a lot of crystal growth on the sides of the container rather than on your string, pour the remaining solution into a new container. Transfer your string to the new container to get better growth.When you are satisfied with your crystals, you can remove them from the solution and allow them to dry.

Change Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Change Project - Essay Example Change is always good and all people pursue change but only a few succeed. What is needed to enable one succeed is to first trust and belief that it is possible to transform one’s ways. It is common to her people claim that people do not change. Such claims are made by people who do not belief that change is possible and therefore are categorized in the group of individuals who find it difficult to alter their ways. It is important to note that it is not enough to belief in change alone. It is also crucial that one beliefs in self and his or her abilities which will facilitate the actions which favor change. Change occurs through various processes or mechanisms. Emotions are the major drivers of change. These are the feelings within an individual and they are caused by thoughts, experiences or influence from other people or even situations. The emotions of a person stem from the mind through reactions to various stimuli within our environment. Good emotions drive a person to change so that the good feelings are retained. Negative emotions also lead to change as a way of avoiding what leads to that change. For example emotions which arise from a person’s experience of an accident results to a positive change of behavior in pursuit of avoidance of such a situating in the future Psychological Perspectives on Four Types of Change (Whitbourne 49). Behavior is another mechanism involved in the change process. The behavior of a person includes the normal actions and reactions of a person during various situations and desires. People commonly relate change to change of behavior. This demonstrates the central role of behavior in the change process. Therefore change in behavior is partial or complete alteration of one’s way of doing things as a result of either internal or external motivation. Changing behavior may be very difficult because it requires a powerful will of the mind for it to be possible. Without

Hume Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hume - Essay Example Hume wrote a book on religion known as the â€Å"Dialogues concerning Natural Religion†. Following is a piece from that literature: â€Å"an eternal inherent principle of order to the world† In this piece of conversation Hume is arguing on the principle of religion and the ideology propagated by the religious texts and other literature. He says that the religion has been propounded as the order to the world. The religious people always based their theory tp be the world of God and Hume is questioning the same theory by making a sarcastic point with effect that all this is a theory in nature and nothing else. The reality is something according to Hume. To this point Philo says that religion is the ultimate truth in the universe and that those who do not follow religion and despise should be given a punishment so that they understand the importance of religion as well as believe in them. To this point Hume says that all this is propaganda by the religious organizations wh o try to turn people into believing the religion of their choice so as to include maximum number of people into this theme to make their ideology powerful, but in reality there is nothing like religion which exists. He goes on to say that there are other means to achieve salvation and self-satisfaction in the world. He says that the human mind is strong enough to find the way on its own and does not need the influence of religion in its life. He says that through wisdom and knowledge of materialistic things around us we may be able to find the true reason for our survival. He believes in the origin of science and says that the only way to live a happy life is to follows the desires of the human mind rather than following what a religious text says. Following is the second quote in the essay: â€Å"The principles themselves and their manner of operation are totally unknown† This is the second quote which shall be analysed in the essay. In this quote Hume says that those who ca me up with the idea of religion themselves do not know how the whole deal with the nature started in the first place. It is a mass agenda with political ambition which has driven the concept of religion in the way as it exists in the world as of today. Following is a quotation to explain the point in a better manner: â€Å"This I affirm, from the infirmities of human understanding, to be altogether incomprehensible and unknown to us. The essence of that Supreme Mind, his attributes, the manner of his existence, the very nature of his duration; these, and every particular which regards so divine a Being, are mysterious to men. Finite, weak, and blind creatures, we ought to humble ourselves in his august presence; and, conscious of our frailties, adore in silence his infinite perfections, which eye hath not seen, ear hath not heard, neither hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive. They are covered in a deep cloud from human curiosity† Over here it is explained that Hu me does not think that humans are aware of the true picture with respect to the God and his origin, and whether or not he exists in the first place. Religion is an outcome of human curiosity, but according to Hume it is a very weak outcome of such curiosity. He argues on the point that the believers of religion do not want to go that extra mile in search of the truth and it their quest to attain truth and divinity

Transition From Authoritian Rule In Argentina Essay Example for Free

Transition From Authoritian Rule In Argentina Essay The transition of governments between various systems of rule is an on-going and never-ending process.   Every geopolitical entity in the world is under some form of government, be it barbarian or advanced, and no two governmental systems function in exactly the same way.    The system of government used in a certain area, territory or country is highly dependant upon the experience of those governed with the systems of governments in place in the past.   Because of the unique occurrences in history, no two entities will experience periods of transition between various forms of government in exactly the same way. Even those countries that are geographically close and share similar histories will experience differing periods of transition.   Although great differences exist, however, many similarities can also be drawn between nations that are seemingly worlds apart.   After World War II, both Argentina and Brazil experienced periods of authoritarian rule.   Both nations came under authoritarian rule and later evolved from authoritarian rule in differing manners.   Therefore, through the practice of drawing contrasts and comparisons, it becomes apparent in what ways the current practice of democracy in Brazil and Argentina is different because of each country’s former experience with authoritarian rule. Introduction Although close geographically, Argentina and Brazil experienced vastly different evolutions in their form of governance in the period following World War II.   Because the similarity in the governmental history of Argentina and Brazil lies in their shared experience of authoritarian rule, it is important, first, to understand the ramifications of that form of government.   The Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines the term â€Å"authoritarian† by describing it as â€Å"of, relating to, or favoring a concentration of power in a leader or an elite not constitutionally responsible to the people†.   (Merriam-Webster, 2007)   To interpret this definition within the bounds of the research question at hand, it is important to draw out two portions of that definition. First, consider the phrase â€Å"concentration of power†.   Unlike decentralized power that spreads rule amongst many, authoritarian rule places all power squarely upon the minority in power.   Next, the key phrase most important in defining â€Å"authoritarian† is that the concentrated power is held by â€Å"a leader or an elite†.   Again, this is the minority that holds a majority of the power.   Finally, consider the phrase that authoritarian rule is â€Å"not constitutionally responsible to the people†.   This could indicate that the government is not duly elected by the people through a constitutionally-defined format, or that once elected, there are no checks and balances by which a full accounting of activities can be demanded by the people. To further fully explore both similarities and differences in the affect of authoritarian rule on later rule, it is important to define the difference between democratization of a nation and liberalization of a nation, because both political processes affect populations in a vastly different manner.   According to Wikipedia, democratization â€Å"is the transition from an authoritarian or a semi-authoritarian political system to a democratic political system†.   (Wikipedia, 2007)   In contrast, liberalization â€Å"refers to a relaxation of previous government restrictions, usually in areas of social or economic policy†.   (Wikipedia, 2007) It is possible, therefore, for democratization and liberalization to work hand in hand as a geopolitical entity transitions its form of government away from authoritarian rule, but it is not necessarily true that one requires the other.   For example, a country can simply relax its set governmental activities without actual changing its form of rule. Authors Guillermo ODonnell and Philippe C. Schmitter state in their work entitled â€Å"Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies† that â€Å"liberalization can exist without democratization†.   (O’Donnell Schmitter, 10)   But while liberalization does not necessarily need democratization, the authors go on to state that â€Å"in all experiences examined, the attainment of political democracy was preceded by a significant, if unsteady, liberalization†.   (O’Donnell Schmitter, 10)   Therefore, the true difference between liberalization and democratization must consider the influence one has upon the other. To understand the state of politics in South America today, one must first understand the basis from which it has evolved, and then its process for evolution.   This paper will first examine the varying forms of governance in Argentina and Brazil prior to authoritarian rule.   Next this paper will study how authoritarian rule came into being in Argentina and Brazil.   Further, this paper will explore how authoritarian rule in Argentina and Brazil gave way to other forms of governance.   And finally, the present-day political climate will be examined in both Argentina and Brazil, in light of the history from which both countries have evolved. Argentina vs. Brazil: Governance Prior to Authoritarian Rule   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Argentina and Brazil became independent nations in 1816 and 1822 respectively.   During this similar time period, Argentina separated from Spanish rule, while Brazil broke from the rule of the Portuguese.   Both countries, according to the CIA World Factbook, were both heavily influenced by European powers, both at their period of separation and to the present day.    In South America, Brazil is the largest nation, and currently the most populous.   Argentina’s political and societal history was largely shaped by Italian and Spanish immigrants that continued to stream in until the 1930s.   (CIA World Factbook, 2007)   The forms of government employed by Argentina and Brazil differed, however, after each nation was granted its independence and before the institution of authoritarian rule.   Both nations separated from countries with forms of government far different than they, themselves, would adopt.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Author David Rock, in his work entitled Argentina in the Twentieth Century, explains that â€Å"the period between 1890 and 1930 in Argentina marked the rise to a position of national dominance of one of Argentinas leading political parties, the Unià ³n Cà ­vica Radical, or Radicalism†.   (Rock, 66)   Conservative rule in Argentina gave way to the rule of the Radical party in 1916, and it is that party that ruled until being overthrown in favor of an authoritarian government in 1930.    Rock states that â€Å"At one time it was thought simply that Radicalism was the political vehicle for the Argentine middle classes. However, more recently it has been shown that the partys origins are to be traced to a coalition between the middle classes and segments of the land-based elite†.   (Rock, 67)   A coalition between the middle classes thought to be the backbone of the Radical Party and the â€Å"land-based elite† is significant, because it was the â€Å"land-based elite† that were in rule as a conservative power both before the Radical party took control in 1916 and after it was overthrown in 1930.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Despite an apparent coalition between dissimilar factions, the CIA World Factbook reports that â€Å"up until about the mid-20th century, much of Argentinas history was dominated by periods of internal political conflict between Federalists and Unitarians and between civilian and military factions†.   (CIA World Factbook, 2007)   This conflict refers both to the transfers of power in 1916 and 1930 as well as the strife that continued in the intervening period of fourteen years.   While the Radical party was in power, Argentina enjoyed a policy of free trade, allowing a strong exporting economy to develop and aiding in the financial development of the country. The tie between the middle-class bases and the â€Å"land-based elite† can be illustrated even in this policy of free trade, as Rock states that â€Å"this system was undermined by the inherent tendency of the primary export economy to concentrate economic power and opportunities narrowly in the hands of the landed groups and foreign capital†.   (Rock, 68)   Despite progress made in the advancement of the interests of Brazil during the period prior to 1930, the overall stability of the Radical party’s governance was shaky at best, and laid the ground work for transition to authoritarianism in 1930.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Brazil employed a more representative form of government earlier on than Argentina, when a republic was established in 1889.   The republic of Brazil, formally named the Republic of the United States of Brazil by the constitution drafted and enacted in 1891, was lead by a constitutionally democratic government that employed a twist – unlike a traditional democracy, such as the United States, the original leaders during this period of time in Brazil were not elected popularly. Instead, power was seized during a coup d’etat and leaders were appointed.   Wikipedia develops the important point that during this period of time, the government of Brazil decentralized and â€Å"restored autonomy to the provinces†.   (Wikipedia, 2007) The major challenge to the ruling party of Brazil prior to 1930 was one of legitimacy: â€Å"how could an illegal, treasonous act (the coup d’etat) establish a legal political order?†Ã‚   (Wikipedia, 2007)   Unlike in Argentina, where a disparity between the â€Å"land-based elite† and those without land led to the government’s eventual overthrow, Brazil’s future can be seen by the fact that the rise of the Republic also led to the strengthening of the state-sponsored Army – the same Army that would precipitate the turn to authoritarian rule in the 1930s.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although a Republic, albeit with initial leaders installed instead of elected, future Brazilian elections did not enjoy the popular support of the people as was seen elsewhere, notably Argentina.   As the road was traveled towards authoritarian rule, â€Å"throughout the 1920s, only between 2.3% and 3.4% of the total population voted.†Ã‚   (Wikipedia, 2007)   Hardly, then, a representative government, Brazil continued to struggle with the question of the legitimacy of its republic.   With that low participation recorded, any decisions made by the government feel to criticism and skepticism.   Although this question of legitimacy would ultimately hurt the concept of a constitutional democracy during that period of time, the Army continued to strengthen with its power checked only nominally by the government and the people.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Argentina and Brazil share similarities and differences in their history prior to the 1930s.   One notably similarity is the continued instability of government that ensued during the period prior to the transition to authoritarian rule.   This is tempered, however, by differing causes for instability; notably dissention between the ruling party and the landed, in Argentina, and the ruling part and military factions, in Brazil.   Like Argentina, Brazil enjoyed wealth through exportation during the period prior to 1930.   Unlike Argentina, however, Brazil failed to account for the agricultural needs of its own countrymen before exportation, and thus was forced to import many products.   These factors all lead to the laying of the path to authoritarianism.    Argentina vs. Brazil: How Authoritarian Governments Came into Power One of the leading exportation products of Brazil prior to 1930 was coffee.   After the crash of the American stock market in 1929, the Great Depression experienced in North American had a trickle-down affect on the economies of South America.   The prices paid for coffee, and thus the revenue gained from the exportation of coffee, was slashed by one third initially and later by two thirds.   With such a gross decline in profitability, the exportation economy as a whole was affected.   Any money held in reserve by the government to equalize pricing was tapped and emptied.   And thus, the country of Brazil was ripe for revolution.   (Wikipedia, 2007) Revolution came in 1930 when Getulio Dornelles Vargas came to power in a legitimate election gained through strategic alliances throughout Brazil.   A non-bloody revolution, the changeover was simply one of ideologies.   Vargas’ rule was to be one interim in nature – during his fifteen years in power, his rule gradually became less open and more repressive.   Wikipedia characterizes this change in his pattern of rule as â€Å"‘a legal hybrid’ between the regimes of Mussolinis Italy and Salazars Portuguese Estado Nà ´vo, copied repressive fascist tactics, and conveyed their same rejection of liberal capitalism, but attained power baring few indications of his future quasi-fascist polices†.   (Wikipedia, 2007}   While in power, Vargas thoroughly rejected the values of Communism – they were in direct contrast with his support of the landed elite – and instead espoused the fascist notions that would help to lock in and retain the power he had grown as the leader of Brazil. The decentralization that had occurred in Brazil before 1930 was gradually eroded, laying open the path to authoritarian rule.   The policies enacted by Vargas included the enactment of â€Å"one of the highest tariffs in the world and constructed a heavily regulated and increasingly centralized economy†.   (Rock, 16)   David Rock, in his work entitled Latin America in the 1940s, went on to outline that Brazil and nearby Argentina experienced changes in economies during the time of World War II, stating that â€Å"although they could no longer import capital goods and raw materials, the industrial producers of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and other countries managed to increase production†.   (Rock, 18)   As such, both Argentina and Brazil benefited by the demands of war.   The turn to authoritarianism between the two countries would differ, however, in the way in which military regimes lead to the transfer of power. Philippe Faucher, in his work entitled â€Å"Authoritarian Capitalism: Brazils Contemporary Economic and Political Development†, states that â€Å"when the dictatorship first came to power [in Brazil] it appeared that it would follow the same course as other military dictatorships†.   (Faucher, 11)   This was not to be the case, however.   Army strength built in Brazil for many years, both pre- and post-World War II.   But it would not be until 1964 that a military power decisively came to power in Brazil, many years after the start of rumblings in 1930.   In between, militaristic periods ensued, interspersed with periods of quasi-democratic rule. In 1964, Marshal Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco, then Brazil’s Army Chief of Staff, came to power.   He skillfully dealt with challenges to his power by making many changes to the government, including removing long-serving governors and representatives and adding power to the presidency.   Although his intent was solely to limit challenges, he instead installed the groundwork for a military dictatorship.   Wikipedia states that his measures â€Å"provided the successor governments of Marshal Artur da Costa e Silva (1967–69) and General Emà ­lio Garrastazu Mà ©dici (1969–74) with a basis for authoritarian rule†.   (Wikipedia, 2007) Meanwhile, in Argentina, a coup d’etat was enacted, quite in contrast with the bloodless transitions of power in Brazil.   Authors Benjamin Most and Lynne Rienner, in their work entitled â€Å"Changing Authoritarian Rule and Public Policy in Argentina, 1930-1970†, state that the military coup of 1930 â€Å"ended middle-class rule in Argentina and reestablished the political domination of Argentinas conservative, export-oriented landed elites and their allies among the export-related industrialists.†Ã‚   (Most Rienner, 46) While Brazil bounced between authoritarian and quasi-democratic rule for more than three decades, Argentina entered a period, in 1930, of different forms of authoritarian government.   This period would last until the mid 1970s.   It is important to look at the variety of forms of authoritarianism that prevailed in Argentina during this 40 year period, as it is indicative of the basic needs and desires of the Argentinean population during that time. Most and Rienner, outlining another work of Guillermo O’Donnell, delineate that Argentina experienced periods of traditional authoritarian rule, populist authoritarian rule, non-dominant rule, and bureaucratic-authoritarian rule.   During those four periods, the dominant coalition was first export industrialists, then domestic industrialists, then non-dominant coalitions, and finally   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   more militaristic rule.   Interestingly, Most and Rienner, quoting O’Donnell, show the beginning of more militaristic rule in 1966, coinciding with Brazil’s own turn towards militaristic rule.   Although history shows the first strongly authoritarian rule in Brazil to have been military-affiliated, the comparison does not draw to Argentinean rule.    Instead, power couple Juan and Eva Peron, who would later be fictionalized and characterized in the stage and film productions of Evita, were the most noted rulers during authoritarian rule in Argentina.   Most and Rienner state that the populist coalition – an authoritarian government that sought to identify with the masses – was â€Å"mobilized and dominated† by Juan Peron.   Peron ruled until being overthrown by a militarily-influenced regime in 1955, shortly after terrible droughts affected the country and also shortly the death of his wife, Eva.   One can almost hear the strains of â€Å"Don’t Cry for Me, Argentina† when contemplating the fate of that nation after the change in regime in 1955. Instead, the period from 1955 until 1966 proved to be almost without notably occurrence, as no strong leadership emerged.   Although authoritarian rule lasted yet several decades longer, the instability begun in 1955 would begin the way out of authoritarian rule in Argentina.   Similarly, continued instability in Brazil would lead to the same, albeit later than the emergence of Argentina from authoritarian rule. Argentina vs. Brazil: How Authoritarian Governments Gave Way to Other Governance   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Powerful to varying extents in Argentina and Brazil, the time nevertheless came for authoritarian rule to end in both countries.   Like their descent into and experience with authoritarian rule, Argentina and Brazil left behind the constraints of that form of government in varying manners and with varying levels of difficulty.   Indeed, the most marked difference in the changes in rule in Argentina and Brazil is the steps and timelines followed by each in the 1970s and 1980s.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Authors Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan note the following in their work entitled â€Å"Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe†: â€Å"Brazil has experienced the most difficulty in consolidating democracy†.   (Linz Stepan, 166)   Linz and Stepan go on after that telling statement to breakdown a variables in Brazil that could have lead to its difficulty in transitioning, but arrive at the conclusion that those variables – including overwhelming debt and the affect of military rule – are not so significantly different than situations faced by other transitioning governments so as to set Brazil apart.    Instead, they arrive at a separate conclusion: that â€Å"the major distinctive problem in Brazil concerns our variable of the political economy of legitimacy†.   (Linz Stepan, 166)   As alluded to in the section dealing with Brazil’s governmental type dating to the beginning of the twentieth century, the largest stumbling block was one of legitimacy.   Through regime after regime, leader after leader, Brazil continued to experience a strong enough, popularly backed official to bring an aura of legitimacy to its government.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A further stumbling block to Brazil in their quest to realize a democratic rule after the end of authoritarianism was the fact that historically, Brazil â€Å"had the least structured system of political parties†, in comparison to other South American countries studied.   (Linz Stepan, 167)   This lack of structure was clearly illustrated by the continual bouncing between authoritarian and non-authoritarian rule during the period following World War II. Because a coalition of any real strength failed to materialize to decisively lead Brazil out of the dark authoritarian rule and into the light of democracy, its transition period was prolonged.   Finally, Linz and Stepan note that the constitution put into place in the late nineteenth century proved again to be inadequate in light of the caste-like society in Brazil, where the disparity between the classes was stark.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The question remains, then, as to how Brazil eventually did cast aside authoritarian rule in favor of democratization.   The answer, it seems, resides in the differentiation of liberalization and democratization.   Linz and Stepan note that â€Å"the Brazilian transition from authoritarianism began†¦[in] 1974†¦[and]was not completed until†¦1990†.   (Linz Stepan, 167-168) Sixteen years of transition is demarcated by initial efforts made in 1974 by General Ernesto Geisel, who set out to institute â€Å"controlled liberalization† in order to aid the country in moving forward alongside South American neighbors then doing the same.   Although liberalization was first introduced in the mid-1970s, democratization did not catch up for quite awhile.   In the intervening years, many changes rocked Brazil, but a sign of true democratization was to come when in 1990, President Fernando Collor de Mello was directly and popularly elected by the people.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The movement of the people that made the direct and popular election of Mello possible in 1990 began in early 1984.   As was characteristic of the entire Brazilian transition from authoritarian rule to democracy, the period of time necessary to enact change was lengthy.   Linz and Stepan write that â€Å"from February to June 1984, Brazil experienced the most sustained and massive political movement in its history – the campaign for Directas Ja, or Direct Elections Now†.   (Linz Stepan, 168)    Although significant portions of both the political and civil realms in Brazil were in favor of a change to a system of direct elections, and although, in fact, no major group voiced opposition to direct elections, the wheels of democratization turned slowly.   The military regime then in place insisted upon exerting a final show of power, and thus the elections of 1985 – the first opportunity for a non-military government since 1964 – were still conducted by indirect vote.   More political drama ensued when the elected president died before assuming office, and his vice-president served at the displeasure of many.   Slow but not stopped, however, was the march towards full democracy, and so Mello was elected in 1990.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Linz and Stepan also spend significant time in analyzing the regime change from authoritarian rule to democracy in Argentina.   One of the first similarities noted was that Argentina emerged from authoritarian rule, similarly to Brazil, by shedding the remains of military rule.   While Brazil’s military rule uttered its dying gasp by blocking a direct election, Argentina saw a more-bloody grasp at remaining in power.   Indeed, Linz and Stepan write that â€Å"while the overall regime lacked the coherence of ideology and organization of a totalitarian regime, many of the military’s statements about the need to exterminate their enemies had a totalitarian edge†.   (Linz Stepan, 190)    In fact, more than â€Å"three hundred times more people per capita disappeared in Argentina than in Brazil†.   (Linz Stepan, 190)   While Brazil’s military may have created stumbling blocks, its leaders were at least working towards liberalization.   In contrast, Argentina’s military rulers wanted no part in that initiative and sought to control power by eliminating the competition.   A further contrast drawn by Linz and Stepan was that â€Å"the military never created parties or held elections as in Brazil†.   (Linz Stepan, 190)   Indeed, while the rule in Brazil was farsighted and thought out an eventual change in rule, the Argentinean model of military rule sought to hold tight to power for as long as possible without regard to the benefits that may be inherent in change.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Linz and Stepan outline five consequences of the fact that the military held so tightly to power, and in fact was able to stay in power for a full eighteen months after their defeat.   First, the span of eighteen months between defeat and the secession of power meant â€Å"the possibility of revolutionary policies was precluded†.   (Linz Stepan, 192)   Second, although the military in its dying gasp held on to power far longer than anticipated, it was weakened by a fear of conflict caused internally.   This fear was rightfully backed by practicality – for any hope of power to remain, any internal division would be deadly. Third, the continued show of power by the military was rebutted when the incoming regime prosecuted military officers vigorously for human rights violations.   Fourth, the violence exhibited by the military against any adversaries tarnished any future hope of partnerships with the incoming democratic government.   And finally, the prosecution of military officers almost led to an undoing of the democratic process, as uprising after uprising by other military officers drew President Raul Alfonsin’s attention away from other critical issues and forced concessions that reflected poorly on a newly-democratic government.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although tenuous at the start, the turmoil experienced in both Brazil and Argentina was weathered by the democratic governments so longed for during authoritarian rule.   Authors Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman offer insight as to why democratization was such an arduous process in Argentina and Brazil, saying that â€Å"in non-crisis circumstances, incumbent authoritarian leaders tend to enjoy greater leverage†.   (Haggard Kaufman, 78)   Obviously, the leverage for the authoritarian leaders in Argentina and Brazil suffered because crises did occur, including financial downfalls that caused the economies of both countries to suffer.   But perhaps those crises were in fact beneficial, in providing the impetus necessary for regime change to occur. Argentina vs. Brazil: Today’s Political Climate   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In present-day Brazil, the CIA World Factbook lists the type of government as federative republic.   In fact, the formal name for the nation is the Federative Republic of Brazil.   The current constitution was enacted in 1988 towards the end of rule by the last non-directly elected ruler.   Interestingly, in a nation that once experienced dismal election turnout rates, voting is now required between the ages of 18 and 70, with the exception of military conscripts, who do not vote. Similarly to the United States, presidential elections are held now every four years.   On the economic front, a country once plagued by enough debt to threaten a complete collapse of government is now growing at a rate of 2.2% per year.   The Factbook quotes that while domestic and international economic shocks have affected the overall economy, the fact â€Å"that Brazil absorbed these shocks without financial collapse is a tribute to the resiliency of the Brazilian economy.†Ã‚   (CIA World Factbook, 2007)   Each president elected since 1990 has introduced initiatives to further strengthen the economy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To understand the full extent of where Brazil is politically today, one must first understand the type of government now in rule.   The basic tenet of a federative republic is that the popularly elected president is both the head of state and head of government.   The election of presidents and legislators is enabled by a multiparty system in a federative republic.   In current-day Brazil, this multiparty system is exhibited by the fact that more than one dozen political parties are currently represented in the legislature, and the president and vice-president were elected from separate political parties. Although the legislative and executive branches of the government work closely together, the judiciary is set apart.   In looking for a cause for this separation of the third wheel of government, it can be presumed that it is to ensure complete independence in the rulings handed down and that those rulings are not influenced by ruling members of the legislature or the president himself.   After so many years of military rule interspersed with weak quasi-democratic rule, it can be easily seen that the setting apart of the judiciary is a stabilizing move.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The present-day government of Argentina has developed similarly to that of Brazil.   In a slight departure, the CIA World Factbook lists Argentina as simply a republic instead of a federative republic.   More practically stated, Argentina is currently a representative democracy.   Unlike Brazil, the current constitution in Argentina was the one originally enacted in 1853; it has, however, been amended numerous times.   In a very similar electoral process to Brazil, presidential and vice presidential candidates are elected to four year terms.   Also similarly to Brazil, the president is both the head of state and head of government.   A final similarity is that voting is also compulsory for anyone above the age of 18.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The roots of today’s Argentinean government can be more clearly seen in the history of Argentina than can be traced in Brazil.   One of the two largest political parties in power today is the Radical Civic Union, which formerly ruled in Argentina from 1916-1930.   The efforts of this party and the popular support among the masses have sustained its power throughout more than a century from its founding in 1890 and its cause of supporting and enhancing the well-being of the middle class remains relevant in the current political climate.    The other of the two largest political parties also has a clear historical tie.   Called the Partido Justicialista, or Judicialist Party, the platform arose from the efforts of overthrown Juan Peron and his efforts â€Å"to expand the role of labor in the political process† during the 1940s.   (Wikipedia, 2007)   Once a country divided by vast differences in social classes, the two largest political parties now place utmost emphasis on the middle and working classes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Brazil and Argentina both enjoy a bicameral legislature composed very similar to that of the House of Representatives and Senate of the United States of America.   In Brazil, the legislature is called the Congresso Nacional, or National Congress.   The two houses of legislature within are called the Senado Federal or Federal Senate, and the Camara dos Deputados or Chamber of Deputies.   The members of the Senate serve eight year terms, with one-third elected during the first four year election and two-thirds elected during the second four year election.   Three Senators are selected from each Federal district, totaling 81 altogether. The Chamber of Deputies are elected to four year terms and represent their Federal district proportionate to population, totaling 513 altogether.   The vast number of political parties represented in the Brazilian government is a sure sign of the people that they want to ensure representation for all – representation that was missing during period of authoritarian rule in Brazil’s history. The Argentinean legislative branch is set up and named in the same way as Brazil, with slight variances occurring in the number of representatives and length of terms..   The Senate of Argentina boasts 72 representatives elected to six-year terms, with one-third up for election every other year.   The Chamber of Deputies in Argentina counts 257 representatives who are elected to four year terms, with half up for election every other year.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The judiciary, as mentioned prior, is set apart in terms of rule from the other two bodies of government in Brazil.   It is not quite so separate in Argentina.   In both countries, members of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president for life and confirmed by the legislature.   In Brazil, however, life ends at 70; at that age, judges are mandatorily retired.   On key difference in the appointment of judges between Brazil and Argentina is that judges in Argentina can be deposed by the legislature; this is not the case in Brazil.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A lasting legacy in Argentina is the current role of the military in overall society.   Having experienced gross tyranny under military rule for so many years and with bloodshed that affected such a wide population, there is understandable fear of an overly powerful military.   Therefore, the military is â€Å"firmly under civilian control†.   (Wikipedia, 2007)   Once a force that completely disregarded human rights and sought only to maintain the largest extent of power possible, the Argentinean military is now a greatly downsized force with only volunteer soldiers.   Conscription in the Argentinean military was abolished in 2001, further giving control to the civilian sector. The history of Brazil speaks more kindly to the rule of military forces, and as such, the influence of the military on the present-day democracy of Brazil is different from that experienced in Argentina.   Conscription in the Brazilian military is still compulsory; males between the ages of 21 and 45 must serve a term of between nine and twelve months, but can volunteer for this service as young as 17.   Women are also allowed and encouraged to serve in the armed forces of Brazil. At any given time, 33 million men and 38 million women are deemed fit for military service; only a small percentage of that actually serve at any given time.   This figure is roughly five times the number of men and women in Argentina considered fit for service.   Brazil also outspends Argentina in the upkeep of military forces by a ratio of two to one.   This may change in the future, however, as the continually stabilizing economy of Argentina launched what is called â€Å"plan 2000† in 2005 to make its forces more prepared for any needs the country requires.   (CIA World Factbook, 2007) Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   By all appearances, the governments of Argentina and Brazil have successfully transitioned out of authoritarian rule and into democratic bodies.   This transition, as illustrated by the many examples of this paper, has not come easily or quickly.   Both nations experienced much strife in the twentieth century, which has carried on some levels into the twenty-first century.   In the end, however, the power of the people prevailed in both countries, and democracy changed from a fleeting form of government experienced only sporadically in the past to a strong form of rule which has a secure future. The future of both Argentina and Brazil is not pre-determined, however, any more than the various forms of rule in the past was pre-determined.   Instead, continued struggles will ensue as the democracies in place grow and age and are tested by circumstances yet unforeseen.   In Brazil, the democracy is still only just over twenty years old, and only a few years older in Argentina. By comparison, when the democracy of the United States of America was just over thirty years old, a war was being fought with the former mother-land in the War of 1812; when the democracy of the United States of America was just under 100 years old, a civil war was fought that proved to be the toughest challenge to the future of democracy ever though possible.   And yet the United States of American has prevailed with a democracy considered the strongest in the world. As the democracies of Brazil and Argentina age to thirty, forty, fifty and a hundred years old, challenges will arise to test legitimacy and strength of power.   However, Brazil and Argentina took a far different path to democracy than did the United States of America.   Because of the trials and turmoil already experienced through authoritarian rule, it is likely that the governments of Argentina and Brazil will be well-prepared to take on the challenges of the future. It is in looking forward that it becomes necessary to define one further term: that of foresight.   Foresight can be defined as using the lessons of the past with the realities of the present to plan for the future.   Both Brazil and Argentina are steeped in rich lessons of past forms of governmental rule; by remembering those histories and tempering them with current circumstances, the nations will be well-equipped to face the future.   Those futures will likely continue on different paths, however, based again on lessons and examples of the past.   Most importantly, the future of democracy, similarly to the current practice of democracy in Brazil and Argentina, will continue to differ because of each country’s former experience with authoritarian rule. References Argentina. (2007) CIA World Factbook   Retrieved electronically April 7, 2007 from https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/br.html. Bruneau, T.C., Faucher, P. (Eds.). (1981). Authoritarian Capitalism: Brazil’s Contemporary Economic and Political Development. Boulder: Westview Press. Brazil. (2007). CIA World Factbook.   Retrieved electronically April 7, 2007 from https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/br.html. Democratization. (2007).Wikipedia. Retrieved electronically on April 7, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Democratization. Haggard, S. Kaufman, R. (1999). The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions.   In â€Å"Transitions to Democracy†, ed. Lisa Anderson.   New York: Columbia University Press. History of Brazil, 1889-1930.   (2007). Wikipedia.   Retrieved electronically on April 7, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Brazil_(1889-1930). History of Brazil, 1930-1945.   (2007). Wikipedia.   Retrieved electronically on April 7, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Brazil_(1830-1945). History of Brazil, 1945-1964.   (2007). Wikipedia.   Retrieved electronically on April 7, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Brazil_(1945-1964). Liberalization. (2007). Wikipedia. Retrieved electronically on April 7, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalization. Linz, J.J. Stepan, A. (1996). Problems of Democrative Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe.   Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary. (2007). Retrieved electronically on April 7, 2007 from http://www.webster.com/dictionary/. Most, B. A. (1991). Changing Authoritarian Rule and Public Policy in Argentina, 1930-1970. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. O’Donnell, G. Schmitter, P.C. (1986). Transition from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies.   Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Politics of Argentina. (2007). Wikipedia. Retrieved electronically April 7, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_ Argentina. Politics of Brazil. (2007). Wikipedia. Retrieved electronically April 7, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Brazil. Rock, D. (Ed.). (1975). Argentina in the 20th Century. London: Gerald Duckworth Co. Ltd. Rock, D. (Ed.). (1994) Latin America in the 1940s: War and Postwar Transitions.  Berkeley: University of California Press.

Philosophy of Science Essay -- Informative, Scientific Method

Background In the modern technological and highly specialized world scientists are seldom aware of the work of philosophers; it is practically unparalleled to find them queuing up, as they have done in Popper's case, to swear to the great practical beneficial influence which that philosophical work has had upon their own (1). In his paper he started by the following â€Å"The problem which troubled me at the time was neither, 'When is a theory true?' nor, 'When is a theory acceptable?' My problem was different I wished to distinguish between science and pseudo-science; knowing very well that science often errs, and that pseudo-science may happen to stumble on the truth† (2) Karl considers the empirical method of observations ensued by test or series of tests to approve a theory, and analysis of the results (empirical method) is not acceptable. As an alternative he recommended the following â€Å"I often formulated my problem as one of distinguishing between a genuinely empirical method and a non-empirical or even a pseudo-empirical method--that is to say, a method which, although it appeals to observation and experiment† (2) He established that the main problem in the philosophy of science is that of demarcation, i.e., (distinguishing between science and what he terms 'non-science). Karl popper summarized his ideas in seven points as followed: 1. It is easy to obtain confirmations, or verification, for nearly every theory-if we look for confirmations. 2. Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions 3. Every 'good' scientific theory is a prohibition: it forbids certain things to happen. 4. A theory which is not refutable by any conceivable event is non scientific. 5. Every g... ...ns no observation is free from the possibility of error. 6- Karl popper considered that scientific logic is deductive logic. so all scientific theories are tested by trying to falsify them. In order to do this, scientists deduce predictions from theories and if the predictions prove to be false, then deductive logic dictates that the theory is false. If the predictions prove to be true, then the theory is not proven true, simply this means that is corroboration to this theory. 7-last one (conventionalist twist) or a’ conventionalist stratagem'.)these words created to explain the trying some admirers of some theories to rescue the theory from refutation tried to save their theory, By introducing some auxiliary assumption, or by re-interpreting the theory in this way that it escapes refutation, but they destroyed or at least lowered, its scientific status (2).

The Return: Nightfall Chapter 6

â€Å"Isaid,get out ,† Meredith repeated to Caroline, still quietly. â€Å"You've said things that never should have been said in any civilized place. This happens to be Stefan's place – and, yes, it's hisplace to order you out, too. I'm doing it for him, though, because he never would ask a girl – and a former girlfriend, I might add – to get the hell out of his room.† Matt cleared his throat. He'd stepped back into a corner and everyone had forgotten about him. Now he said, â€Å"Caroline, I've known you way too long to be formal, and Meredith's right. You want to say the kind of things you've been saying about Elena, you do it somewhere faraway from Elena. But, look, there's one thing I know. No matter what Elena did when she was – was downhere before† – his voice dropped a little in wonder, and Bonnie knew that he meant, when Elena was here on Earth before – â€Å"she's as close to an angelnow as you can get. Right now she's†¦she's†¦completely†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He hesitated, stumbling for the right words. â€Å"Pure,† Meredith said easily, filling in the blank for him. â€Å"Yeah,† Matt agreed. â€Å"Yeah, pure. Everything she does is pure. And it's not like any of your nasty words could stain her, anyway, but the rest of us just don't like hearing you try.† There was a low â€Å"Thank you† from Stefan. â€Å"I was already going,† Caroline said, now through her teeth. â€Å"And don't youdare preach atme about purity ! Here, with all this going on! You probably just want to watch it going on yourself, two girls kissing. You probably – â€Å" â€Å"Enough.† Stefan said it almost expressionlessly, but Caroline was swept off her feet, up and out of the door, and deposited there by invisible hands. Her purse trailed after her. Then the door quietly shut. Fine hairs rose on the back of Bonnie's neck. This was Power, in such amounts that her psychic senses were stunned and temporarily paralyzed. Moving Caroline – and she wasn't a small girl – now that took Power . Maybe Stefan had changed just as much as Elena had. Bonnie glanced at Elena, whose pool of serenity was rippling because of Caroline. Might as well take her mind off it, and maybe make herself worthy of athank you from Stefan, Bonnie thought. She tapped Elena's knee, and when Elena turned, Bonnie kissed her. Elena broke the kiss very quickly, as if afraid to set off some holocaust again. But Bonnie saw at once what Meredith had said about it not being sexual. It was†¦more like being examined by someone who used all her senses to the fullest. When Elena moved away from Bonnie she beamed at her just as she had at Meredith, all the distress washed away by – yes, thepurity of the kiss. And Bonnie felt as if some of Elena's tranquility had soaked into her. â€Å"†¦should have known better than to bring Caroline,† Matt was saying to Stefan. â€Å"Sorry about butting in. But Iknow Caroline, and she could have gone on ranting for another half hour, never actually leaving.† â€Å"Stefan took care of that,† Meredith said, â€Å"or was that Elena, too?† â€Å"It was me,† Stefan said. â€Å"Matt had it right: she could keep on talking forever without actually leaving. And I'd just as lief nobody run Elena down like that in my hearing.† Why are they talking about those things? Bonnie wondered. Of all people, Meredith and Stefan were least inclined to chatter, but here they were, saying things that didn't really need to be said. Then she realized it was for Matt, who was moving slowly but with determination toward Elena. Bonnie got up as quickly and as lithely as if she could fly, and managed to pass Matt without looking at him. And then she was joining Meredith and Stefan in small talk – well, medium-small talk – about what had just happened. Caroline made a bad enemy, everyone agreed, and nothing seemed to teach her that her schemes against Elena always backfired. Bonnie would bet that she was hatching a new scheme right now against all of them. â€Å"She feels lonely all the time,† Stefan said, as if trying to make excuses for her. â€Å"She wants to be accepted, by anyone, on any terms – but she feels – apart. As if nobody who really got to know her would trust her.† â€Å"She's defensive,† Meredith agreed. â€Å"But you'd think she'd showsome gratitude. After all, we did rescue her and save her life just over a week ago.† There was more to it than that, Bonnie thought. Her intuition was trying to tell her something – something about what might have happenedbefore they had been able to rescue Caroline – but she was so angry on Elena's behalf that she ignored it. â€Å"Why should anybody trust her?† she said to Stefan. She sneaked a peek behind her. Elena was definitely going to know Matt anywhere, and Matt looked as if he were fainting. â€Å"Caroline's beautiful, sure, but that's it. She never has a good word to say about anybody. She plays games all the time – and – and Iknow we used to do some of that, too†¦but hers are always meant to make other people look bad. Sure, she can take mostguys in† – a sudden anxiety swept over her, and she spoke more loudly to try to push it away – â€Å"but if you're a girl she's just a pair of long legs and big – â€Å" Bonnie stopped because Meredith and Stefan had frozen, with identicalOh-God-not-again expressions on their faces. â€Å"And she also has very decent hearing,† said a shaking, threatening voice from somewhere behind Bonnie. Bonnie's heart leaped into her throat. That was what you got for ignoring premonitions. â€Å"Caroline – † Meredith and Stefan were both trying for damage control, but it was too late. Caroline stalked in on her long legs as if she didn't want her feet to touch Stefan's floorboards. Oddly, though, she was carrying her high heels. â€Å"I came back in to get my sunglasses,† she said, still in that trembling voice. â€Å"And I heard enough to know now what my so-called ;;friends' think of me.† â€Å"No, you didn't,† Meredith said, as rapidly eloquent as Bonnie was stunned mute. â€Å"You heard some very angry people letting off steam after you'd just insulted them.† â€Å"Besides,† Bonnie said, suddenly able to speak again, â€Å"admit it, Caroline – youhoped you'd hear something. That's why you took off your shoes. You were right behind the door, listening, weren't you?† Stefan shut his eyes. â€Å"This is my fault. I should have – â€Å" â€Å"No, you shouldn't,† Meredith said to him, and to Caroline she added, â€Å"And if you can tell me one word we said that isn't true, or was exaggerated – except maybe for what Bonnie said, and Bonnie is†¦just being Bonnie. Anyway, if you can point to one word of what the rest of us said that isn't true,I'll beg your pardon.† Caroline wasn't listening. Caroline was twitching. She had a facial tic, and her lovely face was convulsed, dark red, with fury. â€Å"Oh, you'regoing to beg my pardon all right,† she said, wheeling to point her long-nailed forefinger at each of them. â€Å"You'reall going to be sorry. And if you try that – that witchcraft-vampire type thing on me again,† she said to Stefan, â€Å"I have friends – real friends – who'd like to know about it.† â€Å"Caroline, just this afternoon you signed a contract – â€Å" â€Å"Oh, who gives a damn?† Stefan stood up. It was dark now inside the small room with its dusty window, and Stefan's shadow was thrown before him by the bedside lamp. Bonnie looked at it and then poked Meredith, as the hairs tingled on her arms and neck. The shadow was surprisingly dark and surprisingly tall. Caroline's shadow was weak, transparent, and short – an imitation shadow beside Stefan's very real one. The thunderstorm feeling was back. Bonnie was shaking now; trying not to, but unable to stop the shivering that had come on as if she had been thrown into icy water. It was a cold that had gotten directly into her bones and was ripping layer after layer of heat off them like some greedy giant, and now she was beginning to shakehard†¦. Something was happening to Caroline in the darkness – something was coming from her – or comingfor her – or maybe both. In any case, it was all around her now, and all around Bonnie, too, and the tension was so thick that Bonnie felt choked, her heart pounding. Beside her, Meredith – practical, level-headed Meredith – stirred uneasily. â€Å"What – ?† Meredith began in a whisper. Suddenly, as if it had all been exquisitely choreographed by the things in the dark – the door to Stefan's room slammed shut†¦the lamp, an ordinary electric one, went off†¦the ancient rolled-up shutter over the window came rattling down, dropping the room into sudden and complete darkness. And Caroline screamed. It was an awful sound – raw, as if it had been stripped like meat from Caroline's backbone and yanked out of her throat. Bonnie screamed, too. She couldn't help it, although her scream sounded too faint and too breathless, like an echo, not the coloratura job that Caroline had done. Thank God that at least Caroline wasn't screaming any longer. Bonnie was able to stop the new scream building in her own throat, even though her shaking was worse than ever. Meredith had an arm around her tightly, but then, as the darkness and the silence went on and Bonnie's shaking only continued, Meredith got up and heartlessly passed her to Matt, who seemed astonished and embarrassed, but tried awkwardly to hold her. â€Å"It's not as dark once your eyes get used to it,† he said. His voice was creaky, as if he needed a drink of water. But it was the best thing that he could have said, because of all things in the world to fear, Bonnie was most afraid of the dark. There werethings in it, things that only she saw. She managed, despite the terrible shaking, to stand with his support – and then she gasped, and heard Matt gasp, too. Elena was glowing. Not only that, but the glow extended out behind her and far to either side of her in a pair of what were beautifully defined, and undeniablythere†¦wings. â€Å"She h-has wings,† Bonnie whispered, the stutter caused by her shaking rather than by awe or fear. Matt was clinging toher now, like a child; he obviously couldn't answer. The wings moved with Elena's breathing. She was sitting on thin air, steady now, one hand held out with her fingers all spread in a gesture of denial. Elena spoke. It wasn't any language that Bonnie had heard before; she doubted it was any language people on Earth used. The words were sharp, thin-edged, like the splintering of myriad shards of crystal that had fallen from somewhere very high and very far away. The shape of the wordsalmost made sense in Bonnie's head as her own psychic abilities were sparked by Elena's tremendous Power. It was a Power that stood tall against the darkness and now was sweeping it aside†¦making the things in the dark scamper away before it, their claws scritching in all directions. Ice-sharp words followed them all the way, dismissive now†¦. And Elena†¦Elena was as heartbreakingly beautiful as when she'd been a vampire, and seemed almost as pale as one. But Caroline was shouting, too. She was using powerful words of Black Magic, and to Bonnie it was as if the shadows of all sorts of dark and horrible things were coming from her mouth: lizards and snakes and many-legged spiders. It was a duel, a face-off of magic. Only how had Caroline learned so much dark magic? She wasn't even a witch by lineage, like Bonnie. Outside Stefan's room, surrounding it, was a strange sound, almost like a helicopter. Whipwhipwhipwhipwhip†¦ It terrified Bonnie. But she had to do something. She was Celtic by heritage and psychic because she couldn't avoid it, and she had to help Elena. Slowly, as if making her way against gale-force winds, Bonnie stumbled to put her hand on Elena's hand, to offer Elena her power. When Elena clasped hands with her, Bonnie realized that Meredith was on her other side. The light grew. The scrabbling lizard things ran from it, screaming and tearing at each other to get away. The next thing Bonnie knew, Elena had slumped over. The wings were gone. The dark scrabbling things were gone, too. Elena had sent them away, using tremendous amounts of energy to overwhelm them with White Power. â€Å"She'll fall,† Bonnie whispered, looking at Stefan. â€Å"She's been using magic so strong – â€Å" Just then, as Stefan started to turn to Elena, several things happened very fast, as if the room was caught in the flashes of a strobe light. Flash. The window shade rolled back up, rattling furiously. Flash. The lamp went back on, revealing it was in Stefan's hands. He must have been trying to fix it. Flash. The door to Stefan's room opened slowly, creaking, as if to make up for slamming shut before. Flash. Caroline was now on the floor, on all fours, groveling, breathing hard. Elena had won†¦. Elena fell. Only inhumanly fast reflexes could have caught her, especially from across the room. But Stefan had tossed the lamp to Meredith and was across the distance faster than Bonnie's eyes could follow. Then he was holding Elena, encircling her protectively. â€Å"Oh,hell ,† said Caroline. Black trails of mascara ran down her face, making her look like something not quite human. She looked at Stefan with unconcealed hatred. He looked back soberly – no,sternly . â€Å"Don't call on Hell,† he said in a very low voice. â€Å"Not here. Not now. Because Hell might hear and call back.† â€Å"As if it already hadn't,† Caroline said, and in that moment, she was pitiful – broken and pathetic. As if she had started something she didn't know how to stop. â€Å"Caroline, what are you saying?† Stefan knelt. â€Å"Are you saying that you've already – made some bargain – ?† â€Å"Ouch,† Bonnie said, suddenly and involuntarily, shattering the ominous mood in Stefan's room. One of Caroline's broken nails had left a trail of blood on the floor. Caroline had knelt in it, too, making things pretty messy. Bonnie felt a sympathetic throb of pain in her own fingers until Caroline waved her bloody hand at Stefan. Then Bonnie's sympathy turned to nausea. â€Å"Want a lick?† she said. Her voice and face had changed entirely, and she wasn't even trying to hide it. â€Å"Oh, come on, Stefan,† she went on mockingly, â€Å"youdo drink human blood these days, don't you? Human or – whatever she is, whatever she's become. You two fly like bats together now, do you?† â€Å"Caroline,† Bonnie whispered, â€Å"didn't yousee them? Her wings – â€Å" â€Å"Just like a bat – or another vampire already. Stefan's made her – â€Å" â€Å"I saw them too,† Matt said flatly, behind Bonnie. â€Å"They weren't bat wings.† â€Å"Doesn't anybody have eyes?† Meredith said from where she stood by the lamp. â€Å"Look here.† She bent. When she stood again she was holding a long white feather. It shone in the light. â€Å"Maybe she's a white crow, then,† Caroline said. â€Å"That would be appropriate. And I can't believe how you're all – all – fawning on her as if she were some sort of princess. Always everybody's little darling, aren't you, Elena?† â€Å"Stop it,† Stefan said. â€Å"Everybody's, that's the key word,† Caroline spat. â€Å"Stop it.† â€Å"The way you were kissing people one after another.† She gave a theatrical shudder. â€Å"Everyone seems to have forgotten, but that was more like – â€Å" â€Å"Stop, Caroline.† â€Å"Thereal Elena.† Caroline's voice had become pretend-prissy, but she couldn't keep the venom out, Bonnie thought. â€Å"Because anyone who knows you knows what youreally were before Stefanblessed us with hisirresistible presence. You were – â€Å" â€Å"Caroline, stop right there – â€Å" â€Å"A slut! That's all! Just a cheap, anybody'sslut !†

Advantages of Geothermal Power Plants

Advantages of Geothermal Power PlantsGeothermal power plants are used for production of electricity from geothermal energy. The traditional thermal power plants need fuel for generating electricity while geothermal powre plants don't need fuel. Here are some of the advantages of generating electricity from geothermal energy. Advantages of using Geothermal Energy for Producing PowerGeothermal energy is the energy stored below the earth’s crust. Due to heat below the earth’s crust water gets heated and also sometimes gets converted into steam. This hot water and steam can be used for generating electricity. Here are the advantages of using geothermal energy for producing electricity: 1) No fuel is required: The thermal and nuclear power plants use fossil and nuclear fuels respectively to heat water and generate steam for production of electricity.The geothermal power plants use the readily available hot water from the geothermal reservoir so no fuel is required. 2) Clean source of power: The fuels used in conventional thermal power plants produce lots of toxic gases and particulate matter polluting the surrounding atmosphere. Electricity can be produced from geothermal reservoir without creating any air-pollution. 3) Less area is required: The land required for the geothermal power plant per megawatt of power produced is much lesser than that required for the other types of power plants. 4) Unhindered production of power: The energy from geothermal reservoir is available 24 hours a day and all the days of the year without any breakage or change during varying seasons, natural disaster and political turmoil. Thus geothermal energy is the reliable source for producing electricity continuously without any hindrance.Parts of a Geothermal Power PlantGeothermal Vents The geothermal vent is the first component of a geothermal plant. A geothermal vent is a deep well drilled into the Earth that the power plant uses to tap into the Earth's heat. A geothermal plant may have two goals for its vent; most current geothermal plants draw superheated, pressurized water  upward; these are called flash steam plants. Geothermal plants may also simply dig far enough underground, as many as three kilometers, to reach a point where the Earth is warm enough to boil water, these are called dry steam vents. Steam GeneratorAnother key component of a geothermal plant is the steam production unit, which can take multiple forms. In a flash steam vent, superheated pressurized water is drawn from its place underground to low-pressure tanks. The pressure of the Earth kept the water in liquid form despite its high temperature, and by removing that pressure the hot water instantly turns to steam, hence the term flash steam. In a dry steam plant, the plant technicians pump water to the bottom of the vent where the Earth's heat boils the water and turns it into steam.TurbineRegardless of the plant type, both flash steam and dry steam plants pump the steam from the geothermal vent to a large turbine. The steam passes this turbine, turning it in the process. This turbine is attached to an electric generator, and as the turbine turns the generator turns the mechanical energy into electric energy, thus converting the heat from the Earth into usable electricity.CondenserAfter the steam passes through the turbine, it continues to a condenser chamber. This chamber condenses the steam back into liquid water by cooling it. The excess heat lost as the steam turns to liquid water may be used for other applications, such as heating or greenhouse farming. The cooled liquid water is then typically pumped back into the ground to either restart the boiling process for dry steam or to replenish the natural heated aquifer for flash steam plants.Disadvantages of Geothermal EnergyGeothermal energy is a key contender for future electricity production in various countries across the globe. This however, doesn't mean that geothermal energy comes without its dis advantages, many of which are explained below.The Disadvantages AvailabilityThe availability of geothermal energy that is capable of feeding geothermal power stations is limited. This intense energy source is often only available in countries where geothermal activity is at its peak, mainly tectonic/volcanic regions such as Iceland. Significant Investment Required – A significant investment is often required prior to building a geothermal power station. Geological surveys have to be undertaken to ensure the location is suitable for geothermal electricity production before any potential installation work can go ahead. It's often costly to transport any required materials to remote locations where there is sufficient geothermal activity.Harmful Gas Potential – Geothermal power stations have the potential to release harmful gases into the air. Toxic gases exist deep beneath the ground in various regions and can sometimes be released via the infrastructure used by geotherm al power stations. Most modern geothermal power plants have systems and procedures in places to deal with these harmful gases. Localised Supply – As geothermal is trapped beneath our feet, we cannot extract, store and transport this energy source to other countries as we do with fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas. Geothermal energy has to be used at source to generate electricity, thus providing a supply of electricity for the electrical grid system of only the source country.The Steam Can Stop – Geothermal power stations have the potential to cool the rocks beneath them buried deep under the ground. If the rocks are cooled via too much water flowing into the well, they will no longer be able to produce the steam required to turn a generator, thus rendering a site useless and resulting in significant losses for any company making use of geothermal energy at that location. Visual Pollution – Geothermal power stations, as with many other power station designs can be unsightly and provide visual pollution. Networks of pipe systems have to be utilised for production purposes and many people are opposed to the sight of these. –Advantages of Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy is widely considered as a key contender for future electricity production in various corners of the earth. Countries including Iceland, the USA and New Zealand already make use of this renewable energy source to provide electricity on a significant scale. There are many advantages relating to the use of geothermal energy and these are described  below. The AdvantagesEnvironmentally Friendly – Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source that's highly environmentally friendly. Little disruption is made to the environment as a result of the various processes that are used to harness this energy source in order to provide electricity. Few chemicals and pollutants feature in geothermal electricity production. Highly Efficient – Geothermal energy is highly efficient and can be used to provide electricity in select areas or even to provide heating for our homes and business on a much wider scale via the use of ground source heat pumps.Cost Effective – As geothermal power stations are relatively small and less complex than large fossil fuel alternatives, they are highly cost effective, especially when they are placed in areas of high geological/tectonic activity where magma is closer to the earth's crust when compared with other locations. Job Creation – The introduction of geothermal energy systems on both an industrial and domestic scale has helped to boost jobs in many different countries. This is a key advantage for areas that may have already been experiencing job shortages. Land Value – Another advantage of geothermal energy and tied into the cost effectiveness of this energy source is land value.Geothermal power stations are often placed in areas of high geological activity where land values may be lo w due to obvious reasons. This helps to provide cost savings for energy companies that wish to make use of geothermal activity. Almost Infinite – Although geothermal activity in a particular area is actually finite, this is likely to be available for anywhere between 5,000 and 1,000,000 years. This huge time scale means geothermal energy is almost infinite and will be able to long live out many fossil fuel alternatives. Always On – As long as geothermal activity is present in a particular region, this energy source will always be on and will be fairly constant.This means that unlike solar, wind, wave and tidal alternatives, geothermal energy can provide continuous electricity production whatever the weather. Very Quiet – Another significant advantage of geothermal energy is how quiet it can be. Geothermal energy is the electric car of power stations and is likely to provide little noise pollution to nearby residents. –Geothermal Power PlantA geothermal po wer plant uses its geothermal activity to generate power. This type of natural energy production is extremely environmentally friendly and used in many geothermal hot spots around the globe. To harness the energy, deep holes are drilled into the earth (much like when drilling for oil) until a significant geothermal hot spot is found. When the heat source has been discovered, a pipe is attached deep down inside the hole which allows hot steam from deep within the earths crust to rise up to the surface. The pressurized steam is then channeled into a turbine which begins to turn under the large force of the steam. This turbine is linked to the generator and so the generator also begins to turn, generating electricity.We then pump cold water down a new pipe which is heated by the earth and then sent back up the first pipe to repeat the process. The main problems with geothermal energy is that firstly, you must not pump too much cold water into the earth, as this could could cool the roc ks too much, resulting in your geothermal heat source cooling down. secondly, geothermal power plants must be careful of escaping gases from deep within the earth. We suggest if you would like to learn more on this topic, you take a look at our advantages of geothermal energy, and our disadvantages of geothermal energy articles.A very good way of thinking about geothermal energy is remembering that all our continents lie on molten rock deep within the earth, this rock produces tremendous levels of heat that we are able to extract, just think of your nation lying on a bed of fire. Geothermal power is one of the most renewable energy sources that exists on our planet today, the earth will contain this heat for our lifetime. If this heat disappears, our planet will become too cold to survive on.You can purchase small scale geothermal equipment for your home yet this works in a different manner to geothermal power stations. The power stations extract the heat directly from deep within t he earth, whereas home geothermal hot water equipment absorbs heat over a lengthy period of time from a few meters beneath your feet.Main parts of the plant are1. Coal conveyor 2. Stoker 3. Pulverizer 4. Boiler 5. Coal ash 6. Air preheater 7. Electrostatic precipitator 8. Smoke stack 9. Turbine 10. Condenser 11. Transformers 12. Cooling towers 13. Generator 14. High – votge power linesBasic Operation :A thermal power plant basically works onRankine cycle. Coal conveyor : This is a belt type of arrangement.With this coal is transported from coal storage place in power plant to the place near by boiler. Stoker : The coal which is brought near by boiler has to put in boiler furnance for combustion.This stoker is a mechanical device for feeding coal to a furnace.Pulverizer : The coal is put in the boiler after pulverization.For this pulverizer is used.A pulverizer is a device for grinding coal for combustion in a furnace in a power plant.Types of Pulverizers Ball and Tube Mill Ba ll mill is a pulverizer that consists of a horizontal rotating cylinder, up to three diameters in length, containing a charge of tumbling or cascading steel balls, pebbles, or rods. Tube mill is a revolving cylinder of up to five diameters in length used for fine pulverization of ore, rock, and other such materials; the material, mixed with water, is fed into the chamber from one end, and passes out the other end as slime. Ring and BallThis type consists of two rings separated by a series of large balls. The lower ring rotates, while the upper ring presses down on the balls via a set of spring and adjuster assemblies. Coal is introduced into the center or side of the pulverizer (depending on the design) and is ground as the lower ring rotates causing the balls to orbit between the upper and lower rings. The coal is carried out of the mill by the flow of air moving through it. The size of the coal particals released from the grinding section of the mill is determined by a classifer s eparator. These mills are typically produced by B&W (Babcock and Wilcox).Boiler : Now that pulverized coal is put in boiler furnance.Boiler is an enclosed vessel in which water is heated and circulated until the water is turned in to steam at the required pressure.Coal is burned inside the combustion chamber of boiler.The products of combustion are nothing but gases.These gases which are at high temperature vaporize the water inside the boiler to steam.Some times this steam is further heated in a superheateras higher the steam pressure and temperature the greater efficiency the engine will have in converting the heat in steam in to mechanical work. This steam at high pressure and tempeture is used directly as a heating medium, or as the working fluid in a prime mover to convert thermal energy to mechanical work, which in turn may be converted to electrical energy. Although other fluids are sometimes used for these purposes, water is by far the most common because of its economy and suitable thermodynamic characteristics.Classification of Boilers Bolilers are classified asFire tube boilers : In fire tube boilers hot gases are passed through the tubes and water surrounds these tubes. These are  simple,compact and rugged in construction.Depending on whether the tubes are vertical or horizontal these are further classified as vertical and horizontal tube boilers.In this since the water volume is more,circulation will be poor.So they can't meet quickly the changes in steam demand.High pressures of steam are not possible,maximum pressure that can be attained is about 17.5kg/sq cm.Due to large quantity of water in the drain it requires more time for steam raising.The steam attained is generally wet,economical for low pressures.The outut of the boiler is also limited.Water tube boilers : In these boilers water is inside the tubes and hot gases are outside the tubes.They consists of drums and tubes. .They may contain any number of drums (you can see 2 drums in fig).F eed water enters the boiler to one drum (here it is drum below the boiler).This water circulates through the tubes connected external to drums.Hot gases which surrounds these tubes wil convert the water in tubes in to steam.This steam is passed through tubes and collected at the top of the drum since it is of light weight.So the drums store steam and water (upper drum).The entire  steam is collected in one drum and it is taken out from there (see in laout fig).As the movement of water in the water tubes is high, so rate of heat transfer also becomes high resulting in greater efficiency.They produce high pressure , easily accessible and can respond quickly to changes in steam demand.These are also classified as vertical,horizontal and inclined tube depending on the arrangement of the tubes.These are of less weight and less liable to explosion.Large heating surfaces can be obtained by use of large number of tubes.We can attain pressure as high as 125 kg/sq cm and temperatures from 3 15 to 575 centigrade.Superheater : Most of the modern boliers are having superheater and reheater arrangement. Superheater is a component of a steam-generating unit in which steam, after it has left the boiler drum, is heated above its saturation temperature. The amount of superheat added to the steam is influenced by the location, arrangement, and amount of superheater surface installed, as well as the rating of the boiler. The superheater may consist of one or more stages of tube banks arranged to effectively transfer heat from the products of combustion.Superheaters are classified as convection , radiant or combination of these.Reheater : Some of the heat of superheated steam is used to rotate the turbine where it loses some of its energy.Reheater is also steam boiler component in which heat is added to this intermediate-pressure steam, which has given up some of its energy in expansion through the high-pressure turbine. The steam after reheating is used to rotate the second stea m turbine (see Layout fig) where the heat is converted to mechanical energy.This mechanical energy is used to run the alternator, which is coupled to turbine , there by generating elecrical energy.Condenser : Steam after rotating staem turbine comes to condenser.Condenser refers here to the shell and tube heat exchanger (or surface condenser) installed at the outlet of every steam turbine in Thermal power stations of utility companies generally. These condensers are heat exchangers which convert steam from its gaseous to its liquid state, also known as phase transition. In so doing, the latent heat of steam is given out inside the  condenser. Where water is in short supply an air cooled condenser is often used. An air cooled condenser is however significantly more expensive and cannot achieve as low a steam turbine backpressure (and therefore less efficient) as a surface condenser.The purpose is to condense the outlet (or exhaust) steam from steam turbine to obtain maximum efficie ncy and also to get the condensed steam in the form of pure water, otherwise known as condensate, back to steam generator or (boiler) as boiler feed water.Why it is required ?The steam turbine itself is a device to convert the heat in steam to mechanical power. The difference between the heat of steam per unit weight at the inlet to turbine and the heat of steam per unit weight at the outlet to turbine represents the heat given out (or heat drop) in the steam turbine which is converted to mechanical power. The heat drop per unit weight of steam is also measured by the word enthalpy drop. Therefore the more the conversion of heat per pound (or kilogram) of steam to mechanical power in the turbine, the better is its performance or otherwise known as efficiency.By condensing the exhaust steam of turbine, the exhaust pressure is brought down below atmospheric pressure from above atmospheric pressure, increasing the steam pressure drop between inlet and exhaust of steam turbine. This fur ther reduction in exhaust pressure gives out more heat per unit weight of steam input to the steam turbine, for conversion to mechanical power. Most of the heat liberated due to condensing, i.e., latent heat of steam, is carried away by the cooling medium. (water inside tubes in a surface condenser, or droplets in a spray condenser (Heller system) or air around tubes in an air-cooled condenser).Condensers are classified as (i) Jet condensers or contact condensers (ii) Surface condensers. In jet condensers the steam to be condensed mixes with the cooling water and the temperature of the condensate and the cooling water is same when leaving the condenser; and the condensate can't be recovered for use as feed water to the boiler; heat transfer is by direct conduction.In surface condensers there is no direct contact between the steam to be condensed and the circulating cooling water. There is a wall interposed between them through heat must be convectively transferred.The temperature of the condensate may be higher than the temperature of the cooling water at outlet and the condnsate is recovered as feed water to the boiler.Both the cooling water and the condensate are separetely with drawn.Because of this advantage surface condensers are used in thermal power plants.Final output of condenser is water at low temperature is passed to high pressure feed water heater,it is heated and again passed as feed water to the boiler.Since we are passing water at high temperature as feed water the temperature inside the boiler does not dcrease and boiler efficincy also maintained.Cooling Towers :The condensate (water) formed in the condeser after condensation is initially at high temperature.This hot water is passed to cooling towers.It is a tower- or building-like device in which atmospheric air (the heat receiver) circulates in direct or indirect contact with warmer water (the heat source) and the water is thereby cooled (see illustration). A cooling tower may serve as the h eat sink in a conventional thermodynamic process, such as refrigeration or steam power generation, and when it is convenient or desirable to make final heat rejection to atmospheric air. Water, acting as the heat-transfer fluid, gives up heat to atmospheric air, and thus cooled, is recirculated through the system, affording economical operation of the process.Two basic types of cooling towers are commonly used. One transfers the heat from warmer water to cooler air mainly by an evaporation heat-transfer process and is known as theevaporative or wet cooling tower.Evaporative cooling towers are classified according to the means employed for producing air circulation through them:atmospheric, natural draft, and mechanical draft. The other transfers the heat from warmer water to cooler air by a sensible heat-transfer process and is known as the nonevaporative or dry cooling tower.Nonevaporative cooling towers are classified as air-cooled condensers and as air-cooled heat exchangers, and are further classified by the means used for producing air circulation through them. These two basic types are sometimes combined, with the two cooling processes generally used in parallel or separately, and are then known as wet-dry cooling towers.Evaluation of cooling tower performance is based on cooling of a specified quantity of water through a given range and to a specified temperature approach to the wet-bulb or dry-bulb temperature for which the tower is designed. Because exact design conditions are rarely experienced in operation, estimated performance curves are frequently prepared for a specific installation, and provide a means for comparing the measured performance with design conditions.Economiser : Flue gases coming out of the boiler carry lot of heat.Function of economiser is to recover some of the heat from the heat carried away in the flue gases up the chimney and utilize for heating the feed water to the boiler.It is placed in the passage of flue gases in between the exit from the boiler and the entry to the chimney.The use of economiser results in saving in coal consumption , increase in steaming rate and high boiler efficiency but needs extra investment and increase in maintenance costs and floor area required for the plant.This is used in all modern plants.In this a large number of small diameter thin walled tubes are placed between two headers.Feed water enters the tube through one header and leaves through the other.The flue gases flow out side the tubes usually in counter flow.Air preheater : The remaining heat of flue gases is utilised by air preheater.It is a device used in steam boilers to transfer heat from the flue gases to the combustion air before the air enters the furnace. Also known as air heater; air-heating system. It is not shown in the lay out.But it is kept at a place near by where the air enters in to the boiler. The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the flue gas from the boiler to improve boiler efficiency by burning warm air which increases combustion efficiency, and reducing useful heat lost from the flue.As a consequence, the gases are also sent to the chimney or stack at a lower  temperature, allowing simplified design of the ducting and stack. It also allows control over the temperature of gases leaving the stack (to meet emissions regulations, for example).After extracting heat flue gases are passed to elctrostatic precipitator. Electrostatic precipitator : It is a device which removes dust or other finely divided particles from flue gases by charging the particles inductively with an electric field, then attracting them to highly charged collector plates. Also known as precipitator. The process depends on two steps.In the first step the suspension passes through an electric discharge (corona discharge) area where ionization of the gas occurs. The ions produced collide with the suspended particles and confer on them an electric charge. The charged particles drift t oward an electrode of opposite sign and are deposited on the electrode where their electric charge is neutralized. The phenomenon would be more correctly designated as electrodeposition from the gas phase. The use of electrostatic precipitators has become common in numerous industrial applications.Among the advantages of the electrostatic precipitator are its ability to handle large volumes of gas, at elevated temperatures if necessary, with a reasonably small pressure drop, and the removal of particles in the micrometer range. Some of the usual applications are: (1) removal of dirt from flue gases in steam plants; (2) cleaning of air to remove fungi and bacteria in establishments producing antibiotics and other drugs, and in operating rooms; (3) cleaning of air in ventilation and air conditioning systems; (4) removal of oil mists in machine shops and acid mists in chemical process plants; (5) cleaning of blast furnace gases; (6) recovery of valuable materials such as oxides of copp er, lead, and tin; and (7) separation of rutile from zirconium sand. Smoke stack :A chimney is a system for venting hot flue gasesor smoke from a boiler, stove, furnace or fireplace to the outsideatmosphere.They are typically almost vertical to ensure that the hot gases flow smoothly, drawing air into the combustion through the chimney effect (also known as the stack effect). The space inside a chimney is called a flue. Chimneys may be found in buildings, steam locomotives and ships. In the US, the termsmokestack (colloquially, stack) is also used when referring to locomotive chimneys. The term funnel is generally used for ship chimneys and sometimes used to refer to locomotive chimneys.Chimneys are tall to increase their draw of air for combustion and  to disperse pollutants in the flue gases over a greater area so as to reduce the pollutant concentrations in compliance with regulatory or other limits. Generator : An alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechani cal energy to alternating current electrical energy. Most alternators use a rotating magnetic field. Different geometries – such as a linear alternator for use with stirling engines – are also occasionally used. In principle, any AC generator can be called an alternator, but usually the word refers to small rotating machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines.Transformers :It is a device that transfers electric energy from one alternating-current circuit to one or more other circuits, either increasing (stepping up) or reducing (stepping down) the voltage. Uses for transformers include reducing the line voltage to operate low-voltage devices (doorbells or toy electric trains) and raising the voltage from electric generators so that electric power can be transmitted over long distances. Transformers act through electromagnetic induction; current in the primary coil induces current in the secondary coil. The secondary voltage is calculated by mult iplying the primary voltage by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary coil to that in the primary. To see the complete operation of the plant in flash player Click here